Contents
INTRODUCTION 7
1 PROTECTED GROUNDS OF DISCRIMINATION 8
1.1 Introduction to the transposition of the anti-discrimination directives 8
1.2 Grounds of discrimination 9
1.2.1 Racial or ethnic origin 14
1.2.2 Religion or belief 16
1.2.3 Disability 20
1.2.4 Sexual orientation 30
1.2.5 Age 31
1.3 Assumed and associated discrimination 32
1.4 Multiple and intersectional discrimination 33
2 DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE 35
2.1 Forms of discrimination 35
2.1.1 Direct discrimination 35
2.1.2 Indirect discrimination 39
2.1.3 Harassment 42
2.1.4 Instructions to discriminate 46
2.2 Scope of discrimination 49
2.2.1 Personal scope 49
2.2.2 Material scope 50
3 EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-DISCRIMINATION AND POSITIVE ACTION 62
3.1 Genuine and determining occupational requirements 62
3.2 Employers with an ethos based on religion or belief 63
3.3 Justification of differences of treatment on grounds of age 65
3.4 Armed forces and other specific occupations 68
3.5 Nationality 69
3.6 Public security, public order, criminal offences, protection of health and protection of the rights and freedoms of others 70
3.7 Other exceptions 70
3.8 Positive action 71
4 ACCESS TO JUSTICE AND EFFECTIVE ENFORCEMENT 74
4.1 Judicial and administrative procedures 74
4.1.1 Available procedures 74
4.1.2 Obstacles to effective access to justice 76
4.2 Legal standing and associations 79
4.2.1 Entities which may engage in procedures 79
4.2.2 To engage ‘on behalf of’ 80
4.2.3 Collective redress 85
4.3 Burden of proof 87
4.4 Victimisation 89
4.5 Sanctions and remedies 92
5 EQUALITY BODIES 96
5.1 Grounds covered 97
5.2 Competencies of equality bodies 108
6 IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE 113
6.1 Dissemination of information and social and civil dialogue 113
6.1.1 Dissemination of information and awareness-raising 113
6.1.2 Social and civil dialogue 114
6.2 Ensuring compliance 115
6.2.1 Ensuring the compliance of national legislation 115
6.2.2 Ensuring compliance of contractual clauses and other rules 116
7 CONCLUSION 118
ANNEX 1. MAIN NATIONAL SPECIFIC ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LEGISLATION 120
ANNEX 2. SIGNATURE/RATIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 134
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Title : A Comparative Analysis of Non-Discrimination Law in Europe 2023
Publication : European Commission's Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, 2023